Crop Improvement

<h1>CROP IMPROVEMENT</h1> CONTENT <ol> <li>Meaning of Crop Improvement</li> <li>Aims of Crop Improvement</li> <li>Methods/Process of Crop Improvement</li> <li>Genetic Terms</li> <li>Mendelian Laws of Inheritance</li> </ol>   <h2>Meaning of Crop Improvement</h2> Crop improvement refers to the ways of developing and breeding of crop varieties which are better than the pre-existing cultivars in a number of characters like taste, height, colour, etc. for a better yield. Crop improvement is defined as the science that deals with the development of new crop varieties with superior quality and quantity.   <h2>Aims of Crop Improvement</h2> The following are the aims of crop improvement: <ol> <li>To improve the quality of produce</li> <li>To increase crop yield</li> <li>To adapt crops to adverse climatic conditions</li> <li>To induce resistance to pests and diseases in crop plants</li> <li>To conserve land resources</li> <li>To breed crops with uniform growth and maturity</li> <li>To meet particular needs of growers and consumers</li> <li>To improve harvesting qualities thereby harvesting is done with ease</li> <li>To meet the needs of consumers (processors or industrialists)</li> </ol>   <h2>Methods/Process of Crop Improvement</h2> The methods of crop improvement include the following: (a) Introduction (b) Selection (c) Hybridization/Cross Breeding   <h3>(a) Introduction</h3> Involves movement of plant(s) from the centre of origin of a supposed centre of evolution to another place where they can adapt and survive. Such imported crops are usually guaranteed by the nation’s plant quarantine service before introducing it to the country.   <h4>Advantages of Introduction</h4> <ol> <li>It is used to upgrade the qualities of the local varieties.</li> <li>It brings about varieties adaptable to the soil and climatic conditions of the new area.</li> <li>It enhances greater productivity.</li>

Animal Improvement

<h1>ANIMAL IMPROVEMENT</h1> CONTENT <ol> <li>Meaning of Animal Improvement</li> <li>Aims of Animal Improvement</li> <li>Methods/Processes of Animal Improvement</li> <li>Artificial Insemination</li> </ol>   <h2>Meaning of Animal Improvement</h2> Animal improvement is the process whereby inherited superior traits are transferred from one animal to the other of the same species. Certain characteristics such as good feeding conversion, growth rate, meat quality, high milk yield, good body form, etc. are major considerations in animal improvement.   <h2>Aims of Animal Improvement</h2> The following are the aims of animal improvement: <ol> <li>To produce animals with high yielding quality</li> <li>To produce animals with high feed conversion rate</li> <li>To produce animals with high growth rate and early maturity</li> <li>To produce animals that can adapt to varied climatic conditions</li> <li>To produce animals that are resistant to disease and parasites</li> <li>To produce different breeds of animals</li> <li>To produce animals that meets a particular purpose</li> </ol>   <h2>Methods/Processes of Animal Improvement</h2> The following are the methods/processes of animal improvement: (a) Introduction (b) Selection (c) Breeding   <h3>(a) Introduction</h3> This is bringing animals which are not native of a place but are known to have certain desirable characters into a new place from the place of origin. Such animals are called exotic. Introduction can be by physical importation either of the animals themselves or their semen. <h4>Advantages of Introduction</h4> <ol> <li>It enhances greater productivity.</li> <li>It leads to absence of pests and diseases.</li> <li>Breeds may perform better and able to adapt to local conditions.</li> </ol>

Animal Health Management

<h1>ANIMAL HEALTH MANAGEMENT</h1> <ol> <li>Meaning of Animal Health Management</li> <li>Meaning of Disease</li> <li>Causal Organisms of Animal Diseases</li> <li>Predisposing Factors to Diseases</li> <li>Signs of Infections in Animals</li> <li>Reactions of Animals to Pathogenic Attacks</li> <li>Economic Importance of Diseases</li> <li>Selected Diseases of Farm Animals - Affected Animals; Causal Organisms; Mode of Transmission; Symptoms; Prevention/Control</li> <li>General Prevention of Livestock Diseases</li> </ol>   <h2>Meaning of Animal Health Management</h2> Animal health management deals with monitoring the health status of the animals on the farm. It is apparent that a healthy animal will be productive while unhealthy animal apart from not been productive becomes a liability as money would be spent for their treatment. Besides, there is a high risk of transferring the infections to other animals.   <h2>Meaning of Disease</h2> A<strong> disease condition</strong> is a deviation from normal functioning state of the animal’s body which comprises of different components working in unity. In a nutshell, disease is any condition in which there is departure from the normal functioning of the system of the animal’s body.   <h2>Causal Organisms of Animal Diseases</h2> The causal organisms of animal diseases are classified as follow: <h3>1. Pathogenic organisms/factors</h3> These are; <ul> <li>Bacteria</li> <li>Virus</li> <li>Fungi</li> <li>Protozoa</li> <li>Nematodes</li> <li>Parasites</li> </ul> <h3>2. Non-pathogenic factors</h3> These are factors like; <ul> <li>Nutritional deficiency</li> <li>Inanimate objects like chemicals, environmental conditions (extreme cold or heat)</li> </ul>   <h3>Bacteria</h3> They cause diseases by secretion of toxins. Diseases are infectious and contagious. They are transmitted by air, water and animals inform of spores. Examples of bacteria diseases are contagious abortion, anthrax, mastitis, T.B, fowl pox, cow pox, etc.

Animal Health Management: Parasites

<h1>ANIMAL HEALTH MANAGEMENT</h1> CONTENT <ol> <li>Meaning of Parasites</li> <li>Types of Parasites</li> </ol> <ul> <li>Ecto-parasites - Ticks, Lice, Mites, Flies</li> <li>Endo-parasites - Tape Worm (<em>Taenia spp), </em>Round Worm (<em>Ascaris lumbricoides</em>), Liver Fluke (<em>Fasciola hepatica</em>)</li> </ul>   <h2>Meaning of Parasites</h2> Parasite is an organism which lives on or inside the body of another organism called the host in order to derive all its nourishment such as food, shelter and protection. The parasite does not provide any benefit but causes damage or harm to the host in return. The host usually belongs to a different species and is often bigger and stronger than the parasite. Sometimes the relationship with the parasite causes the death of the host or reduces its productivity. The relationship between the parasite and the host is known as Parasitism. Based on this relationship, a parasite may be temporary, (living for a short period in or on the host) or permanent, (living their entire lives in the host e.g. endo-parasites)   <h2>Types of Parasites</h2> Livestock parasites are grouped into two namely; <ol> <li>Ecto-parasites</li> <li>Endo-parasites</li> </ol>   <h3>1. Ecto-parasites</h3> These parasites live outside or on the hosts. They usually attach themselves to the skin of the animals. Ecto-parasites include ticks, lice, mites, fleas, flies, etc. <h4>(i) Ticks</h4> Ticks affect livestock such as cattle, sheep, horses and dogs. They live all their lives attached to the hosts and suck blood except during the period of mounting and reproduction. Tick belongs to the order of Acarina and the class Aranchinda.   <h5>Classification of Ticks</h5> <h6>(a) Classification of Ticks based on Mode of Development</h6> <ol> <li><strong>One Host Tick</strong>: All stages of development takes place in one host animal e.g. blue tick.</li> <li><strong>Two Host Tick</strong>: The lava develops into nymph on the first host. The nymph falls off and moults into adult which attaches to the secondary host e.g. red legged tick.</li> <li><strong>Three Host Tick</strong>: These attach to different animals at each stage of development, drop off and moult into the next stage on the ground e.g. water tick.</li> </ol>   <h6>(b) Classification of Ticks based on Body Texture</h6> <ol> <li>Hard tick (Ixodidae)</li> <li>Soft tick (Argasidae)</li> </ol>   <h5>Life Cycle of Host Tick</h5> <img class="size-full wp-image-56041 aligncenter" src="https://classhall.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/life-cycle-of-host-tick.jpg" alt="Animal Health Management - Parasites - Life Cycle of a Host Tick" width="499" height="408" /> Ticks are important arthropods and vectors of infectious diseases. They carry both viruses and protozoan producing organisms. When unfed they are flat, but spherical when engorged with blood of warm blooded vertebrates. They are unisex, the female after mating sucks blood many times until it increases in size. The stages of development: Eggs → Larva → Nymph → Adult Ticks have eight walking legs. Their eggs are laid on the ground and larva emerges to climb grass or shrubs and attaches to any passing animals. The eggs hatch out in about 3-4 weeks depending on the climatic condition.   <h5>Economic Importance of Ticks</h5> <ol> <li>Loss of blood and weight</li> <li>Reduction in quality of hide and skin which lead to reduction in market value</li> <li>Reduction in the production of meat and milk</li> <li>Restlessness caused by skin irritation</li> <li>Loss of farmers’ income</li> <li>Injuries from bite causes secondary infection</li> <li>It causes and transmits diseases such as heart water disease, red water disease, anaplasmosis, tularemia, typhus, etc.</li> <li>It produces substance which causes toxic effect on animals</li> <li>Transmitted diseases may cause death and eventually reduce number of stock</li> </ol>   <h5>Control of Ticks</h5> Ticks can be controlled by the following: <ol> <li>Good sanitation</li> <li>Regular dipping in solution of acaricides</li> <li>Spray animals’ beddings with insecticides</li> <li>Adopt rotational grazing</li> <li>Burning of infected pasture</li> </ol>   EVALUATION <ol> <li>State the classification of ticks and give examples for each.</li> <li>Why is the control of ticks necessary in animal production?</li> </ol>

Aquaculture

<h1>AQUACULTURE</h1> CONTENT <ol> <li>Meaning of Aquaculture</li> <li>Importance of Aquaculture</li> <li>Types of Aquaculture</li> <li>Fish Farming</li> </ol> <ul> <li style="list-style-type: none;"> <ul> <li>Classification of Fish</li> <li>Conditions Necessary for Siting a Fish Pond</li> <li>Construction of a Fish Pond</li> <li>Maintenance of Fish Pond</li> <li>Methods of Fish Harvesting/Cropping</li> <li>Basic Laws and Regulations of Fishing</li> <li>Fish Preservation</li> </ul> </li> </ul>   <h2>Meaning of Aquaculture</h2> The term <em>fish</em> is applied to a variety of cold-blooded, water-dwelling (aquatic) animals that belong to the phylum Chordata. Fishes belong to four different classes consisting of bony, cartilaginous, jawless and fleshy-finned fishes. Aquaculture/fish farming is the propagation and husbandry of aquatic organisms in artificial water bodies for commercial, recreational and scientific purposes. Aquaculture refers to both marine and fresh water species and can range from land based to open ocean production of fish, shrimp, and other aquatic animals.   <h2>Importance of Aquaculture</h2> The following are the importance of aquaculture: <ol> <li>It is a source of protein man and livestock diets</li> <li>It provides employment and income to farmers</li> <li>Fishes are useful for educational purpose to students and researchers</li> <li>It provides a means of recycling domestic waste such as animal dung</li> <li>It serves as source of foreign exchange through exportation of fish and fish products</li> <li>Fish oil serve as food and is also used in the manufacture of soaps</li> <li>Fish farming encourages the economic use of land</li> <li>It is used as tourist and entertainment</li> <li>It can be consumed by all categories of people, since it has no religion and traditional limitation.</li> </ol> <h2>   Types of Aquaculture</h2> There are different types of aquaculture. These are; (i) Fishery (ii) Shrimps rearing (iii) Crab rearing (iv) Cray fish rearing (v) Lobster rearing (vi) Prawn rearing (vii) Oyster shell rearing (viii) Marine snail rearing (ix) Squid rearing (x) Mussel rearing (xi) Clam rearing (xii) Octopus rearing (xiii) Rearing of aquatic mammals such as whales, etc. (xiv) Periwinkles rearing <img class="size-full wp-image-56723 aligncenter" src="https://classhall.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/aquaculture-tilapia-fish1.jpg" alt="Aquaculture - Tilapia fish" width="381" height="241" /> <p style="text-align: center;">Tilapia Fish</p>   <h2>Fish Farming</h2>

Apiculture or Bee-keeping

<h1>APICULTURE OR BEEKEEPING</h1> CONTENT <ol> <li>Meaning of Apiculture</li> <li>Importance of Apiculture</li> <li>Types of Bees</li> <li>Methods of Keeping Bees</li> <li>Bee Keeping Equipment</li> <li>Factors to Consider in Choosing a Site for Apiary</li> <li>Bee Products and their Uses</li> <li>Precautionary Measures in Keeping Bees</li> </ol>   <h2>Meaning of Apiculture</h2> <em>Apiculture</em> comes from two Latin words, <em>apis</em> meaning bees and <em>cultura</em> meaning cultivation. From these apiculture is the cultivation of bees. This definition however lacks substance as bees are animals not plants that cannot be cultivated but rear. Hence, apiculture can be better define as the art of rearing, breeding and managing honey bee colony in artificial hives for economic gains through the production of honey and other bee products for man’s use. For bees to produce honey, they feed majorly on nectar and pollen   <h2>Importance of Apiculture</h2> Apiculture is important for the following reasons: <ol> <li>Provision of honey: we obtain honey which serves as sweetening properties</li> <li>Source of income to the bee keepers</li> <li>Medicinal use: It is used in curing various ailments</li> <li>Source of raw materials: bye products of honey such as bee wax is used in manufacturing of candles, polish and adhesives</li> <li>Pollination: honey bees are pollinators and this is their greatest value in agriculture</li> <li>They provide employment opportunities to the bee keepers</li> <li>Bee keeping does not compete with any other agricultural crops and livestock hence; it can be practice alongside other forms of agriculture</li> <li>It requires little land space and capital</li> <li>It is a good field of study in agriculture</li> <li>The honey produced is sold in different market outlet</li> </ol>   <h2>Types of Bees</h2> There are many different species of bees most of which are solitary (<em>Apiscerana</em>) while others are social. Social bees live together in colonies and the best known is the honey bees (<em>Apismellifera</em>). The major types are indigenous and exotic bees. <img class="size-full wp-image-56527 aligncenter" src="https://classhall.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/types-of-bees.jpg" alt="Apiculture or Bee Keeping - Types of Bees" width="574" height="342" />

Marketing of Agricultural Produce

<h1>MARKETING OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE</h1> CONTENT <ol> <li>Meaning of Agricultural Marketing</li> <li>Importance of Agricultural Marketing</li> <li>Marketing Agents</li> <li>Marketing Channels</li> </ol>   <h2>Meaning of Agricultural Marketing</h2> Agricultural marketing involves all the stages of operations which aid the movement of agricultural produce/commodities from the farms to the final consumers. Marketing involves assembling, storing, transporting, processing, grading of goods and financing of all these activities. It also involves the supply of raw materials to processing industries and sales of processed products.   <h2>Importance of Agricultural Marketing</h2> The following are the importance of agricultural marketing: <ol> <li>It creates a link between Farmers and the final Consumers.</li> <li>It leads to the creation of employment to the agents involved in marketing</li> <li>It makes the supply of seasonal goods possible throughout the year with little or no variation in price</li> <li>It helps to prevent wastage of produced agricultural products</li> <li>It stimulates the Government to provide infrastructure like roads, water, storage facilities, etc.</li> <li>It makes goods produced in the rural areas to be readily made available in the urban areas where agricultural goods are not usually produced</li> <li>It enables producers to determine and know the Consumer’s taste</li> <li>It ensures prompt sales of agricultural produce which increases the farmers’ revenue and profit</li> <li>It stimulates researches into the techniques of food preservation and preparation to meet the Consumer’s taste.</li> </ol> EVALUATION <ol> <li>What is Agricultural Marketing?/Explain the term <em>marketing in agriculture</em>.</li> <li>State five importance of marketing in agriculture.</li> </ol>   <h2>Marketing Agents</h2> Marketing agents are the people or corporate bodies that are directly or indirectly involved in the free flow of farm produce from the farm to the consumer. They include the following:

Marketing of Agricultural Produce in Nigeria

<h1>MARKETING OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE IN NIGERIA</h1> CONTENT <ol> <li>Marketing Functions</li> <li>Marketing of Export Crops</li> <li>Importance of Exporting Agricultural Produce</li> <li>Measures taken by Government to Promote Exportation of Crops and Livestock Products in Nigeria</li> <li>Steps Involved in Exporting Agricultural Produce</li> <li>Corporate Bodies, Cooperative Societies and Individuals Engaged in Exporting Agricultural Products</li> <li>Problems of Agricultural Marketing</li> </ol>   <h2>Marketing Functions</h2> Marketing functions are the activities of the various marketing agents on the farm produce to be offered for sale. They are otherwise known as marketing functions and services carried out before the produce reaches the final consumer. These marketing functions are; (i)<strong> Farm-level Processing: </strong>This is the immediate processing of farm produce after harvesting in readiness for market. For example, cocoa processing, drying of farm produce and cleaning of farm produce. (ii)<strong> Grading or Sorting: </strong>This is the grouping of farm produce into various sizes, weights and quality for easy handling. (iii)<strong> Packaging: </strong>This is the loading of farm produce into various packs and labeling of the graded commodities. It can be describe as the technology of enclosing or protecting products for distribution, storage, sales and use. Packaging contains, protects, informs and sells the product. (iv)<strong> Storage or warehousing: </strong>This is the keeping of the farm produce in a store for a period of time before sales or export. (v)<strong> Transportation: </strong>This is the movement of produce from one location to another; that is from the store house to the market or port for exports.

Agricultural Extension

<h1>AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION</h1> CONTENT <ol> <li>Definition of Agricultural Extension</li> <li>Agricultural Extension as a Teaching and Learning Process<strong> </strong></li> <li>Difference between Agricultural Extension and Formal Education</li> <li>Objectives or Roles or Functions of Agricultural Extension</li> <li>Principles of Extension</li> <li>Agricultural Extension Programmes</li> <li>Agricultural Extension Methods</li> <li>Adoption of Innovation</li> <li>Qualties, Functions/Roles and Problems of Agricultural Extension Officer or Agent or Worker</li> </ol>   <h2>Definition of Agricultural Extension</h2> Agricultural extension can be defined as a process of disseminating information about new farming techniques from research stations to rural farmers through extension agents. <img class="size-full wp-image-56836 aligncenter" src="https://classhall.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/agricultural-extension.jpg" alt="Definition of Agricultural Extension" width="490" height="31" />   <h2>Agricultural Extension as a Teaching and Learning Process<strong> </strong></h2> Agricultural extension is an informal, out-of-school, voluntary agricultural education process involving the dissemination of useful agricultural skills and developed technologies to be adopted by rural people for an improved agriculture and better life. Agricultural extension is also the process, system or service which assists farmers or rural people through education procedures in improving farming methods and techniques. It is aimed at educating rural people and farmers on how to adopt modern methods of farming. It is to teach people how to use their skills, knowledge and information to improve their living standard. In extension, farmers learn reasons for change, value for a change, process of change and the results achievable through change.   <h2>Difference between Agricultural Extension and Formal Education</h2> Agricultural extension differs from formal education in the following ways; <ol> <li>Agricultural extension is voluntary but not compulsory</li> <li>It is problem-centred and not student or learner centred</li> <li>It has the field as its classroom</li> <li>It involves practical demonstrations</li> <li>It involves trained workers in agriculture and home economics.</li> </ol>   <h2>Objectives or Roles or Functions of Agricultural Extension</h2> The following are the objectives or functions of agricultural extension:

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